Nanoscale emulsion formation

May 102010

The Baker lab is studying the properties of perfluorocarbon-based nanoscale emulsions. These emulsions are used as platforms for the delivery of therapeutic and imaging agents to cancerous cells. This video shows the formation of such an emulsion from coarse-grained models of perfluorocarbona dn lipid. This work is performed in collaboration with the Schlesinger, Wickline, and Lanza labs.

Duration : 0:0:26

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organic thanakha treatment for pimples by lito almilla

May 52010

all in one organic skincare product, that is therapeutic, an agent of restoration and a protection. 100% natural BFAD aprove. the safest way to remove pimples/acne, and other skin prob. contact 583-7310/0919-8321155/0922-9508362

Duration : 0:9:29

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Acne Treatment – How Acne Medicine Works

May 22010

Dr. Thomas P. Habif, MD discusses Acne Treatment – How Acne Medicine Works. See more at http://www.dermnet.com PLEASE RATE AND COMMENT!!!
Mode Of Action Of Therapeutic Agents

Formation of the microcomedo or comedogenesis is thought to be the

primary process in the pathogenesis of acne. Excess desquamation of

follicular keratinocytes, abnormalities in sebum production and

migration of immune cells that release proinflammatory cytokines are

responsible for creation of the microcomedo. This lesion may evolve

into noninflammatory open and closed comedones.

P. acne bacteria proliferation in this sebum-keratinocyte mixture

generates free fatty acids which are comedogenic. They also induce the formation of cytokines that induce inflammatory cells to invade and

produce papules, pustules and cysts.

Acne treatments are designed to reverse abnormal desquamation of

epithelial cells, stop the proliferation of P. acnes and reduce the

excess production of sebum.

Reduction of Epithelial Desquamation

Topical agents that affect the desquamation of follicular epithelial

cells and have activity against comedogenesis are tretinoin,

tazarotene, adapalene, azelaic acid and salicylic acid. Topical

tretinoin reduces the numbers of microcomedones and comedones by

slowing the desquamation processes. Oral isotretinoin causes a decrease in the size of comedones and a

reduction their formation.

Topical and systemic antibiotics cause a small reduction in the number

of comedones. Salicylic acid has a week effect on comedogenesis.

Prevention of Proliferation of P. acnes

P. acnes proliferates in the lipid environment of the sebaceous

follicles. The bacteria is sensitive to many antibiotics. The problem

is to find agents that can effectively penetrate the lipid environment. Antibiotics kill the bacteria and inhibit the production of proinflammatory mediators by P. acnes that are not killed. Topical

agents with antibiotic activity include benzoyl peroxide, clindamycin,

erythromycin and azelaic acid.

Effective oral antibiotics include tetracycline, erythromycin,

doxycycline, minocycline, clindamycin, and trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole.

Reduction of Sebum Production

Topical therapies do not influence the production of sebum. Sebaceous glands are androgen-dependent therefore estrogens and antiandrogens are effective.

Low dose estrogen contraceptives are moderately effective.

Higher dose contraceptives with 50 or more of ethinyl estradiol or

other estrogens were used in the past and were more effective but had

more side effects. Spironolactone 25 to 200 mg per day reduces sebum production and can be very effective. Only women are treated with this antiandrogen. Isotretinoin profoundly reduces sebum production and results in prolonged remissions. A four-to-five-month course of therapy at an average dose of 1.0 mg per kilogram of body weight is required to obtain this effect.

The use of combinations of agents to attack every pathogenic factor is the most effective strategy for managing acne.

Duration : 0:3:57

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Why in Malaysia the doctor don’t allow us to take vitamin and supplement? What do you thinks about this?

April 302010

What are vitamins?
Vitamins are substances that your body needs to work properly and keep you in good health. Most vitamins cannot be made by the body, so they have to be provided by your diet in small regular amounts.1
Why do I need vitamins?
Your body uses vitamins to do a number of things, including building and maintaining tissues and organs. Vitamins provide energy, boost the immune system, keep skin healthy and help keep the brain and nervous system in good working order.2
Improve Overall Joint Health Without Using Pain Killers
Reduces joint pain
• Relieve pain caused by inflammation commonly arising from arthritis, joint injuries and everyday aches and pains
Reduces inflammation and swelling
• Uses potent, natural anti-inflammatory ingredients to reduce swelling
Improves mobility
• Improves blood circulation and reduces inflammation leading to increased mobility
• Nourishes joints and speeds healing
Safer for your liver, kidneys and stomach
• A safe and effective alternative to traditional pain medications
• Uses Boswellia – an herb with pain reducing benefits – as a safe and effective alternative to NSAIDs (Ibuprofen, aspirin and naproxen)
Buy Motion for your joint and muscle pain and inflammation
………………………………………………………………………………….
DRUGS are chemicals that can prevent, prolong the life, treat other effects of a health condition, improve the quality of life, and/or cure ailments and diseases, or alter the function of any part or chemicals inside the body. These drugs have approved therapeutic claims.
Drug Side Effects
A side effect is usually regarded as an undesirable secondary effect which occurs in addition to the desired therapeutic effect of a drug or medication. Side effects may vary for each individual depending on the person’s disease state, age, weight, gender, ethnicity and general health.
Side effects can occur when commencing, decreasing/increasing dosages, or ending a drug or medication regimen. Side effects may also lead to non-compliance with prescribed treatment.Medication
A medication or medicine is a drug taken to cure and/or ameliorate any symptoms of an illness or medical condition, or may be used as preventive medicine that has future benefits but does not treat any existing or pre-existing diseases or symptoms.
(Redirected from Adverse effect (medicine))
In medicine, an adverse effect is a harmful and undesired effect resulting from a medication or other intervention such as surgery. An adverse effect may be termed a "side effect", when judged to be secondary to a main or therapeutic effect, and may result from an unsuitable or incorrect dosage or procedure, which could be due to medical error. Adverse effects are sometimes referred to as "iatrogenic" because they are generated by a physician/treatment. Some adverse effects only occur only when starting, increasing or discontinuing a treatment. Using a drug or other medical intervention which is contraindicated may increase the risk of adverse effects. Adverse effects may cause medical complications of a disease or procedure and negatively affect its prognosis. They may also lead to non-compliance with a treatment regimen.
The harmful outcome is usually indicated by some result such as morbidity, mortality, alteration in body weight, levels of enzymes, loss of function, or as a pathological change detected at the microscopic, macroscopic or physiological level. It may also be indicated by symptoms reported by a patient. Adverse effects may cause a reversible or irreversible change, including an increase or decrease in the susceptibility of the individual to other chemicals, foods, or procedures, such as drug interactions.
………………………………………………………………………………………
Chemotherapy
The overall impact of chemotherapy on cancer survival can be difficult to estimate, since improved cancer screening, prevention (e.g. anti-smoking campaigns), and detection all influence statistics on cancer incidence and mortality. In the United States, overall cancer incidence rates were stable from 1995 through 1999, while cancer death rates decreased steadily from 1993 through 1999.[1] Again, this likely reflects the combined impact of improved screening, prevention, and treatment. Nonetheless, cancer remains a major cause of illness and death, and conventional cytotoxic chemotherapy has proven unable to cure most cancers after they have metastasized.

As is obvious from their origins, the above cancer chemotherapies are essentially poisons.

Side-effects
The treatment can be physically exhausting for the patient. Current chemotherapeutic techniques have a range of side effects mainly affecting the fast-dividing cells of the body. The most common side effects include (dependent on the agent):[citation needed]
Pain, Erythema, Nausea, Diarrhea or constipation, Anemia,Malnutrition
Hair loss, Memo
relax…laa..red thin line…I don’t talk too much I type too much…so how can I shut down…. I only can off the lap top that’s means I sleep…

they want to keep people ill… so they can get continues income.

The biomedical attraction of magnetic nanoparticles

April 302010

Magnetic-materials specialist Kevin O’Grady predicts a big future for magnetic nanoparticles in clinical applications ranging from targeted drug delivery to the heat treatment of cancerous tumours.

Kevin O’Grady, professor of physics at the University of York, UK, provides an accessible overview that unpicks the fundamental science of magnetic nanoparticles as well as looking ahead to the delivery of real-world diagnostic and therapeutic nanoparticle technologies for clinical medicine.

Duration : 0:8:8

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AlzheimerVideoNews.com World Alzheimer’s Day Special Report

April 272010

This AlzheimerVideoNews.com World Alzheimers Day 2008 Special Report discusses the significant progress which occurred in the field of Alzheimer clinical research in 2008, including a discussion regarding the latest promising therapeutics which address new therapeutic targets. These new agents, which were both the subject of presentations at ICAD 2008, the world’s leading forum on dementia research, and scientific publications in 2008, include Rember®, Dimebon®, and etanercept. This broadcast constitutes the debut of AlzheimerVideoNews.com, a site devoted to a critical discussion of the most important news in Alzheimer research.

AlzheimerVideoNews.com Copyright 2010 INR®, all rights reserved.

Duration : 0:6:46

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Diabetes, Wound Healing, And Hyperbaric Oxygen Chamber Therapy Part 1

April 242010

http://www.balancedhealthtoday.com
According to the American Diabetes Association, diabetes is a disease in which the body does is not able to produce or properly use insulin. Insulin is a hormone that are bodies need to converts sugar, starches and other food into energy that we need for daily life. Although both genetics and environmental factors such as obesity and lack of exercise appear to play a role in having diabetes, the cause of diabetes continues to be a mystery.

There are about 23.6 million children and adults in the United States or 7.8% of the population ho suffer from diabetes. While there are an estimate of 17.9 million who have been diagnosed of diabetes, there are also 5.7 million people who are unaware that they have diabetes.

And example of how diabetes affects our bodies is diabetic foot wounds. Individuals who have diabetes suffer circulatory disorders that create inadequate levels of oxygen to support the healing of wounds. These wounds present major complications for modern health care and especially with the foot as it is a common site of infection. In Canada, there is an estimated 25% Canadians with diabetes who develop foot complications and 1 in 15 end up having a limb amputation during their lifetime.

Is diabetes a hopeless case? What could help in the cure for diabetes and wound healing? The answer to the first question is that diabetes is not a hopeless case, the second answer would be oxygen. Oxygen is one of the most powerful and versatile agents available to the modern medical practitioner today. The therapeutic use of oxygen under pressure has been used to assist in the healing of wounds for almost 40 years. This therapeutic use of oxygen under pressure is called hyperbaric oxygen chamber therapy (HBOT) and in the following paragraphs are its specific biological actions which can enhance diabetes and wound healing.

http://www.balancedhealthtoday.com/products.html

Duration : 0:0:54

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Atlas Physiotherapy Clinics – Barry J Wale Film & Television Production

April 212010

http://www.barryjwale.com

Atlas Physiotherapy Clinics

Solihull Birmingham Physiotherapists at Atlas offer physiotherapy and acupuncture for back pain, rehabilitation and sports injuries. If you are seeking a private physiotherapist in Solihull, Olton, Hall Green, Shirley, Dickens Heath, Monkspath or near to Birmingham, then try the Atlas Pain Relief Centre Physiotherapy Clinic

HPC registered physiotherapists can treat you for sports injuries or back pain on private health insurance or private payment plans.  Our physiotherapists prefer a hands on approach and also use electrotherapy and massage.

Our physiotherapists specialise in back pain, stiff neck, sciatica, whiplash, trapped nerves, slipped discs, frozen shoulder, knee pain, muscle strains, sprained ligaments, tennis elbow and sports injuries and are registered with the Health Professions Council (HPC) Our Chiropodist and Podiatrist is also registered with the HPC.

Acupuncture from our Solihull acupuncture practitioners is available for pain relief and many more conditions
What is Physiotherapy ?

Physiotherapy is the study or practice of the therapeutic use of physical methods or agents such as remedial exercises, massage or electrotherapy. Physiotherapy is the treatment of injury by correcting and improving the natural healing processes of the body This can be achieved in many ways, but having an awareness that the human body will always attempt to heal itself, the physiotherapist can assist this process.

In recent times Physiotherapy has developed combining its established techniques with those associated with other disciplines, including Osteopathy, Chiropractors and Chiropractic and many physiotherapists now use acupuncture in addition to their treatments.

The Physiotherapist often uses hands on treatment and will offer remedial home exercises in an attempt to get the patient to take some responsibility in assisting their own recovery.

Physiotherapists have always been regarded as the Gold Standard in rehabilitation techniques and exercise prescription following injury. The NHS employs many specialist physiotherapists who provide treatment in our hospitals and the community

Physiotherapist is now a protected title and only physiotherapists registered with the Health Professions Council (HPC) may use the title Physiotherapist.

Duration : 0:3:57

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AlzheimerVideoNews.com World Alzheimer’s Day Special Report

April 152010

This AlzheimerVideoNews.com World Alzheimers Day 2008 Special Report discusses the significant progress which occurred in the field of Alzheimer clinical research in 2008, including a discussion regarding the latest promising therapeutics which address new therapeutic targets. These new agents, which were both the subject of presentations at ICAD 2008, the world’s leading forum on dementia research, and scientific publications in 2008, include Rember®, Dimebon®, and etanercept. This broadcast constitutes the debut of AlzheimerVideoNews.com, a site devoted to a critical discussion of the most important news in Alzheimer research. AlzheimerVideoNews.com Copyright 2010 INR®, all rights reserved.

Duration : 0:6:46

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The Origin of Aids….Please someone tell me if it’s true!?

April 122010

The Manmade Origin Of AIDS
By Paris and Dr. Kwame Nantambu

Yes, you read it correctly. AIDS is manmade. Here you will read, explicitly, that the US government funded the creation of this virus that would "lead to yet another method of massive killing of large populations" and "be refractory to the immunological and therapeutic processes upon which we depend to maintain our relative freedom from infectious disease." Yes, there is most definitely a war going on, and it is much scarier than you probably ever imagined. Read on:

The Development of the AIDS virus was funded in 1969 through funds obtained by the United States Defense Department via House Bill 15090. The Bill, which called for the US Defense Department to receive $10 million dollars to research, test and develop the virus, was reviewed in Hearings before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives during the ninety-first Congress in review of the Defense Appropriations for 1970. Copies of the full text of the Bill are not available in any public library and are impossible to locate online, although many other Bills are.
Part Five of H.R. 15090 was entitled RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT, TEST, AND EVALUATION, sponsored by the Department of the Army, the Advanced Research Project Agency (now DARPA), and Defense Research and Engineering.

The Feasibility program and laboratories were to have been completed by 1974 – 1975 and the virus between 1974 – 1979. The World Health Organization (WHO) started to inject AIDS – laced smallpox vaccine (Vaccina) into Africans in 1977. Over 2000 young white male homosexuals were injected with laced Hepatitis B vaccine in 1978 through the Centers for Disease Control and the New York Blood Center. The development of the virus apparently had a dual purpose: (1) As a political/ethnic weapon to be used against black individuals and (2) one of the programmed efforts at de-population.

For the record it must be stated emphatically that the origin of AIDS has absolutely nothing to do with the green monkey, African people nor the Haitians.
The stark reality is that, according to The Strecker Memorandum (1983):
-AIDS is a man-made disease
-AIDS is not a homosexual disease
-AIDS is not a venereal disease
-AIDS can be carried by mosquitoes
-Condoms will reduce the chances of, but not prevent AIDS
-There are at least six different AIDS viruses in the world 1
AIDS represents the most potent medical weapon in the armory of Europeans to annihilate, decimate and castrate African, Hispanic and Asian peoples under the rubric of European supremacy.

Why and How was AIDS Created?
The AIDS virus was created ‘as a political/ethnic weapon to be used mainly against Blacks.

2 "AIDS is biological warfare at its Euro-supremacist zenith," according to Malcolm Turner in his book AIDS is Biological Warfare: A Warning to African People. "AIDS is not an act of God against homosexuals; it did not appear out of thin air and it did not come from Africa. It was designed to kill people of color and a review of the statistics show that this is exactly what is happening…it is the creation of a sick, demented white racist power structure…

3 The creation and subsequent deployment of the AIDS virus by the World Health Organization was not just a diabolical scientific exercise that got out of hand. It was a cold-blood successful attempt to create a killer virus which was then used in a successful experiment in Africa.

4 The creation of AIDS "was not an accident?. It was deliberate.

5 AIDS is nothing less than genocide by white racists against the rest of humanity.

6 The Real Origin of AIDS
The AIDS virus was created by the United States government at Fort Dietrich in Maryland, a biological warfare laboratory in building number A550 in the P4 lab. The sum of US $10m was requested by the Defense Department to build the lab under the House of Representatives Bill number H.R. 15090 in the 91st Congress in 1970.

7 Dr. Theodore Strecker writes, "The US National Cancer institute, in collaboration with the World Health Organization, manufactured the AIDS virus in their laboratories at Fort Detrich, Maryland. They combined two deadly retroviruses, the Bovine Leukemia Virus and the Visna Virus, and injected them into human tissue cultures. The result was the AIDS virus, the first human retrovirus known to man and now believed to be 100 percent fatal to those infected.

8 Dr. Strecker further contends that AIDS couldn’t have engineered itself, and reiterates that it was produced in a laboratory by virologists. "The World Health Organization (WHO) called for scientists to work with these deadly agents and attempt to make a hybrid virus that would be deadly to humans. An attempt was made to see if viruses could in fact exert selective effects on immune function. The possibility was looked into that the immune response to the virus itself would be impaired if the infecting virus damaged, more or less selectively, the cell responding to the virus?

9 The AIDS epidemic was triggered by the mass vaccination campaign which eradicated smallpox.

10 In fact, the WHO itself has studied "new scientific evidence suggesting that immunization with the smallpox vaccine Vaccinia, awakened the unsuspected, dormant human immuno defense virus infection (HIV).

11 Pearce Wright, an advisor to the WHO, writes, "I thought it was just a coincidence until we studied the latest findings about the reactions which can be caused by Vaccinia. Now I believe the smallpox vaccine theory is the explanation to the explosion of AIDS?.

12 The fact of the matter is that the WHO concluded that "in the relation to the immune response, a number of useful experimental approaches can be visualized?.

13 As a result, "they suggested that a way to do this would be to put their new killer virus (AIDS) into a vaccination program, sit back and observe the results.

14 The WHO used smallpox vaccine as their vicious vehicle to spread the AIDS virus and the geographic areas chosen were Uganda and other African countries, Haiti, Brazil and Japan. The present "AIDS epidemic coincides with these geographical areas.

15 As an addendum, "there is also substantial evidence" to show that a confidential source in the WHO has revealed that there is "a strong correlation between the proportion of people in different central African countries who consented to the smallpox vaccine program and the proportion of those now infected with AIDS.

16 The stark reality is that "the AIDS virus must be a man-made, bio-engineered virus.

17 Hence, it’s no great surprise that the WHO, in true Euro-supremacist modus operandi, "started to inject AIDS-laced smallpox vaccine (Vaccina) into over 100 million Africans (as part of its global non-European population reduction program) in 1977.

18 Dr. Theodore A. Strecker further writes, "If the African green monkey could transmit AIDS to humans, the present known amount of infection in Africa makes it statistically impossible for a single episode, such as a monkey biting someone, to have brought this epidemic to this point. The doubling time of the number of people infected, about every 14 months, when correlated with the first known case, and the present known number of cases, prove beyond a doubt that a large number of people had to have been infected at the same time. Starting in 1972 with the first case from our mythical monkey and doubling the number infected from that single source every 14 months you get only a few thousand cases. From 1972 to 1987 is 15 years or 180 months. If it takes 14 months to double the number of cases, then there would have been 13 doublings, 1 then 2, then 4, then 8, etc. In 15 years, from a single source of infection there would be about 8,000 cases in Africa, not 75 million AIDS infected people. We are approaching World War II mortality statistics here without a shot being fired.

19 The fact of the matter is that under the current European global policy of annihilating people of color, "AIDS is expected to kill more people and orphan more children than all the wars of the 20th century combined.

20 The Global Impact of AIDS
The spread of the AIDS virus is omnipresent among African peoples and people of color. AIDS is without any doubt, the largest epidemic in human history. The global magnitude of the impact of AIDS is such that as of June 2001, "more than 70 percent of the people with the virus that causes AIDS are in sub-Saharan Africa, the poorest region in the world.

21 AIDS has transformed Africa into a "killing field.

22 In fifteen years, "AIDS has killed 11 million Africans, more than 80 percent of the world’s AIDS deaths.

23 AIDS "has struck some 36 million people, 25.3 million of them in Africa, and orphaned 13 million children.

24 According to the United Nations in 1998, there are 5,500 AIDS-related funerals every day in Africa.

25 In Zimbabwe alone, 1,200 die each week from AIDS. As of February 2001, there are 5.8 million AIDS cases in South/Southeast Asia, 1.4 million in Latin America, and 640,000 in East Asia. In fact, in June 1991, it was reported that "by the end of this decade, Asia will be the epicenter of the worldwide AIDS epidemic, host to the fastest-growing AIDS population in the world.

26 As of February 2000, the Caribbean has as high as 700,000 people infected with AIDS, thus making the region "the second largest incidence in the world after Africa.

27 In the case of the United States, African-Americans account for about 11 percent of the national population but 57 percent of the AIDS cases. In 1999, African-Americans and Hispanics accounted for almost 70 percent of new HIV infections. However, strangely enough, death rates in Europe of people infected with the virus that causes AIDS have fallen 84 percent since 1985.

28 The reality is that two-thirds of the people in the world infected with AIDS today are in sub-Saharan Africa, but only about 2 percent are in Western Europe. That is no accident. It is genocide. The sole purpose of this heinous man-made virus is to reduce the global population of African peoples and people of color through AIDS decimation, annihilation and castration, by any and all means necessary. AIDS represents a medical intifadah declared against African people and people of color.
The Tuskegee Experiment

A relevant comparison analysis is the Tuskegee Experiment that was conducted by the U.S. government on innocent and unsuspecting African-American males from 1932-1972. In 1932, the United States Public Health Services solicited and recruited about 400 African-American males as guinea pigs in "one of the most notorious medical experiments ever" on the study of the effects of syphilis in Macon County, Alabama.

29 These subjects never gave informed consent for their participation in the study. "The Black men were never told they had syphilis nor were they told their disease could endanger their families.

30 In the fall of 1932, handbills were posted and circulated at several church gatherings in the poor county, where even the one black doctor served only those who could afford to pay. The ads promised "special treatment" for men with "bad blood," which, to local folks, could mean anything from VD to anemia to indigestion. Eager to take advantage of any kind of medical care that was free, men signed up in droves.

Sadly, even when a penicillin treatment cure for syphilis became available in the 1940s, the men in the Tuskegee syphilis experiment "were not allowed to receive the antibiotic.

31 By U.S. government decree "other doctors in Macon County were forbidden to treat any of the men in the study.

32 These Black men were sharecroppers with no formal education. "Many had never seen a doctor, much less been treated by one. Anything white people asked them to do, they did.

33 The U.S. has stated that "the purpose of the study was to record the destructive effects of untreated syphilis and to follow closely the medical progress of the group until each man died.

34 However, according to Martin P. Levine, the experiment was easily justified by physicians and scientists because "it was widely believed that Black racial inferiority made them a notoriously syphilis-soaked race.

35 These physicians and scientists were convinced that: "(The) smaller brains (of these Black men) lacked mechanisms for controlling sexual desire, causing them to be highly promiscuous. They matured early and consequently were more sexually active, and the Black man’s enormous penis with its long foreskin was prone to venereal infections. These physiological differences meant that disease must affect the races differently.

36
Conclusion

In sum, the U.S. government-sponsored Tuskegee Experiment is germ-biological warfare committed on its own citizens for 40 years. It must be noted, however, that in 1974, a US Civil Rights attorney won a $10m settlement from the government for the Tuskegee victims and their heirs, and another $2.1m payment was received in 1976. On May 16, 1997, then-President Bill Clinton issued an official public apology on behalf of the U.S. government to the victims of the Tuskegee experiment.

37 So you see, the notion of waging biological warfare on so-called undesirable populations is not a foreign one to the US Government. This is it’s legacy – the greatest homicidal and genocidal killing machine in the history of civilization.

AS POSTED BY DAMON.

Each one reach and teach one……..NATION
note to all :- I HAVE NOT MADE UP MY MIND!
I just read this and was like wut the hell, where did this come from. I don’t know what to think but honestly you really can’t put nyfin past politics can you?

Lol to the American Haters comment. :’)

I’m not sure if it’s true, but it sure sounds logical…

I find it absolutely ridiculous that after primates have roamed the Earth for more than 5 million years & modern humans for over 500 thousand years without incidence, it is a coincidence that they have contracted this indestructible virus in the 20th Century when & where the technology existed to enable the creation of such viruses.

Then again, this could very well be just another case of natural immunity & susceptibility.

Look at the American Indians, whom where mostly annihilated not by war but by famine & diseases brought by the first European settlers in the 15th & 16th centuries.